Acanthamoba keratitis and contact lens solutions Essays

Acanthamoba keratitis and contact lens solutions Essays Acanthamoba keratitis and contact lens solutions Essay Acanthamoba keratitis and contact lens solutions Essay 1 General debut 1.1 Acanthamoeba 1.1.3 Overview of Acanthamoeba Acanthamoeba is free- life protozoons and found all over the environment. The first appraisal that Acanthamoeba could do disease in worlds was registered in 1958 during polio vaccinum appeared with plaques stemmed from the formation of both triphozoite and cyst in cell civilizations and identified to genus Acanthamoeba ( Culbertson, Smith et Al. 1958 ) . Inoculation of tissue civilization fluid led to the decease of mice and monkeys from phrenitis gave an proclamation to Acanthamoeba as agents of human diseases ( Culbertson, Smith et Al. 1959 ) . Acanthamoeba are the major cause for Granulomatous Acanthamoeba Encephalitis ( GAE ) in immunocomprimised people, particularly those with AIDS and Acanthamoba keratitis is associated with contact lenses wearers ( Culbertson, Smith et Al. 1958 ; Culbertson, Ensminger et Al. 1966 ; Cohen, Buchanan et Al. 1985 ) . Recently, research workers have shown an increased involvement in the relationship between Acanthamoba keratitis and contact lens so lutions because of the increasing incidence of the disease. Present interventions are ill effectual against the cystic phases of the parasite in Acanthamoeba Keratitis and let residuary infection wheares is no effectual antimicrobic intervention for Granulomatous Acanthamoeba Encephalitis. The demand for new and effectual disinfectants is pressing. In this literature reappraisal, the undermentioned facets will be covered ; The life rhythm of Acanthamoeba, Classification of Acanthamoeba, Biology and epidemiology of Acanthamoeba including the distribution and morphology of Acanthamoeba and the shikimate tract which happened in Acanthamoeba, The pathogens of Acanthamoeba ssp.and so in subdivision 2 the Acanthamoba keratitis will be discussed in inside informations with some of the of import and old surveies done with the contact lens and contact lens bactericidal trials. 1.1.4 The life rhythm of Acanthamoeba The life rhythm of the Acanthamoeba is simple and has merely two phases trophozoites ( an active phase ) and cysts ( a resistant phase ) as shown in ( Fig.1 ) . Under inauspicious fortunes trophozoites can transform into cysts for illustration ; dehydration, alteration in temperature, nutrient want and pH ( Bowers and Korn 1969 ; Chagla and Griffiths 1974 ; Byers, Akins et Al. 1980 ; Marciano-Cabral and Cabral 2003 ) . The cystic opposition phases of the parasite necessarily lead to poorer intervention efficaciousness. The parasite infection in the late phase frequently leads to cornea harm where corneal organ transplant is required. The staying cysts after intervention set off in infection of a corneal organ transplant ( Seal 2003 ) . 1.1.3 Categorization of Acanthamoeba In Castellani research, he described the presence of an ameba in Cryptococcus pararoseus civilizations and was placed in genus Acanthamoeba ( Castellani 1930 ) . From ( Fig.2 ) the Acanthamoeba is placed under Acanthamoebidae household. 1.1.4 Biology and epidemiology of Acanthamoeba 1.1.4.1 The distribution of Acanthamoeba The Acanthamoeba species became positive of the world-wide distribution as seen from the original isolation of the Acanthamoeba strain as shown in table 1. 1.1.4.2 The morphology of Acanthamoeba The negatron microscope was used in the survey of the cellular organisation of the Acanthamoeba ( Bowers and Korn 1968 ; Arbors and Korn 1969 ; Gonzalez-Robles, Flores-Langarica et Al. 2001 ) . The higher eukaryote typical cell organs were found in Acanthamoeba trophozoites as Golgi composite, smooth and unsmooth Reticulum, free ribosomes, digestive vacuoles, chondriosomes and microtubules with the presence of acanthopodia, which is a spinous surface projection, can place the genus degree. The cyst has a furrow two-base hit walled and consists of an ectocyst and an endocyst with variable sizes sing to species ( Bowers and Korn 1969 ) . In 19995, Mzur and his co-workers proved the viability of Acanthamoeba to widen 24 old ages after storage in H2O at 4 A ; deg ; C. 1.1.4.3 The shikimate tract The shikimate tract is an attractive mark for weedkillers and antimicrobic agents usually absent in mammals. In fact the shikimate tract is found in bacteriums, Fungis and workss. The tract consequences in the production of chorismate. ( Roberts, Roberts et al. 1998 ) reviewed the literature from the tract and found grounds for the shikimate tract to be present in protozoon ( figure.3 ) . Seven catalyse enzymes involved to bring forth chorismate. In their reappraisal of the shikimate tract, ( Roberts, Roberts et al. 2002 ) place the synthesis of aromatic amino acid tryptophan, coenzyme Q, vitamin Ks, phenylalanine and tyrosine, from the chorismate depends on five enzymes. Within systematic groups, the molecular organisation of the shikimate tract enzymes differs ( Coggins, Duncan et Al. 1987 ) . Monofunctional polypeptides encoded by separate cistrons in procaryotes every bit good as workss with two exclusions of dehydrogenase and shikimate dehydrogenase are present as bifunctional proteins. Polypeptide proteins are known as AROM has spheres similar to bacterial enzymes. Glyphosate inhibited 5-enolpyruvyl shikimate 3- phosphate synthesis activity might potentially be used to halt the production of chorismate, coenzyme Q, vitamin Bc and aromatic amino acids in Acanthamoeba. It is deserving bearing in head that the shikimate tract is an first-class mark for new antimicrobic agents. 1.1.8 The pathogens of Acanthamoeba ssp. 1.1.8.1 Granulomatous Amoebic Encephalitis ( GAE ) The Granulomatous Amoebic Encephalitis is uncommon CNS infections and majorly occur in immunocomprimised patients ( Culbertson, Smith et Al. 1958 ; Culbertson, Ensminger et Al. 1966 ; Cohen, Buchanan et Al. 1985 ) . Several species of Acanthamoeba are involved with Granulomatous Amoebic Encephalitis and the scientists are non intirely certain about the incubation period of the Acanthamoeba infections. 1.1.5.2 Cutaneous Acanthamebiasis Skin lesions caused by Acanthamoeba are most common associated in patients with AIDS ( Casper, Basset et Al. 1999 ) . Cutanoes acanthabiasis has been reported more frequently in HIV positive patients than in other instances ( Hunt, Reed et al. 1995 ; Torno, Babapour et Al. 2000 ) . 1.1.5.3 Amoebic Keratitis This is the interested subject for the undertaking, all the inside informations found in subdivision 2. 2 Acanthamoeba Keratitis The first sight endangering corneal disease registered as Acanthamoeba Keratitis in Great Britiain was by ( Naginton, Watson et Al. 1974 ) , and in United States by ( Jones, Visvesvara et Al. 1975 ) . Acanthamoeba Keratitis can be caused either by A.castellanii, A. polyphyga, A. hatchetti, A.culbertsoni, A.rhysodes, A.griffini, A.quina and A. lugdunesis ( Moore, McCulley et Al. 1985 ; Moore and McCulley 1989 ; Bacon, Frazer et Al. 1993 ; Schaumberg, Snow et al. 1998 ) . Microbial keratitis is the most terrible and common ( Melia, Islam et Al. 2008 ) may ensue in loss vision normally in soft lens users. It is caused by klebsiella infection and Pseudomonas, other bacteriums and Fungis may affect. Although Acanthamoeba spp. can do rare infection, they are responsible for sight- threatening keratitis, where cornea organ transplant is required in terrible instances. 2.1 Diagnosis of Acanthamoeba Keratitis It is frequently hard to name Acanthamoeba Keratitis because of the similarty diagnosing with viral and bacterial infections. It is diagnosed as followed methods: 2.1.1 Microscopic methods: The corneal scraping is the best method used to insulate Acanthamoeba and name Acanthamoeba Keratitis ( Karayianis, Genack et Al. 1988 ) . Next the scraping technique, samples can be smeared on glass slides and seen under light microscope. Whereas cysts and trophozoites are easy seen under negatron microscopy ( Mathers, Stevens et Al. 1987 ) . 2.1.2 Culture methods: A figure of surveies have found that corneal and conjuctival swabs are extensively non an appropriate for isolation Acanthamoeba ( Wright, Warhurst et Al. 1985 ) . On the other manus, other research workers identified the cysts and trophozoites in stained tissue subdivisions by the corneal scrapings and corneal biopsy specimens ( DAversa, Stern et Al. 1995 ) . Several surveies showed that Acanthamoeba has been cultured from contact lenses, lens instances and lens bactericidal solutions but showed at the same clip negative consequences when civilized corneal tissues ( Moore and McCulley 1989 ; Illingworth, Cook et Al. 1995 ) . In another major survey in cultural methods, substancial from a corneal scraping can be laid on to nonnutrient agar with E-coli or inoculate into liquid medium ( Kilvington, Larkin et Al. 1990 ) . 2.1.3 PCR techniques: In most recent methods, PCR work out to be amore sensitive diagnostic method than civilization and to corroborate the clinical diagnosing in civilization negative instances ( Lehmann, Green et Al. 1998 ) . The advantage of this check is that to cognize the subgroups of the Acanthamoeba ( Schroeder, Booton et al. 2001 ) . 2.2 Interaction between Acanthamoeba Keratitis and the Immune System ( Kremer, Cohen et al. 1994 ) in their animate beings experiment and in afew figure of human patients showed the function of the immune system in Amoebic Keratitis. The greater Numberss of inflammatory cell type s distinguished and environing Acanthamoeba trophozoites or cysts are macrophages and neutrophils. Sing to the observations of ( Martinez and Visvesvara 1997 ) , Acanthamoeba covers its antigens from cellular immune responses by agencies of that stamp downing macrophages maps or lymphocyte action. However, ( McCulley, Alizadeh et Al. 1995 ) , found that neutrophils are present in a batch of measure in Acanthamoeba Keratitis which ends with stromal mortification in chronic diseases due to peptidases released by ne*utrophils. In the experiments to kill Acanthamoeba cysts in vitro, involved both neutrophils and macrophages can straight kill cysts at a first line of defense mechanism against Acanthamoeba Keratitis ( Alizadeh, Apte et Al. 2001 ) . Macrophages kill the cysts by phagocytosis, neutrophils by the secernment of peptidases. 2.3 Treatment of Acanthamoeba Keratitis The topical applications of disinfectants which are a mixture of propamidine isothionate and fradicin or chlorhexidine are presently applied every 15-60 proceedingss for a hebdomad ( Marciano-Cabral and Cabral. 2003 ) . In contrast to curative regimens for Acanthamoeba keratitis, the intervention for GAE is non effectual however such therapy has been showed good consequence in surgery ( Seijo-Martinez et al. , 2000 ) . The standard therapy for Acanthamoeba keratitis in the UK, is a combination of biganide ( PHMB or chlorhexidine ) and diamidine ( propamidine or hexamidine ) applied hourly for the first two yearss, followed by hourly in the 3rd twenty-four hours and reduced to two hourly by twenty-four hours for the 3rd and 4th hebdomads and eventually maintained for single conditions ( Dart et al. , 2009 ) .Parallel to the backbreaking interventions, the latest disinfectant is preferred because it showed efficaciousness against both cysts and trophozoite phases. There is no challengi ng the fact that new effectual disinfectants are under researches ( Seal 2003 ) . 2.5 The relationship between the contact lenses wearers and Acanthamoeba Keratitis 2.4.1 Contact lenses Contact lenses are worn to better and rectify vision and on the other manus worn for decorative with the colouring lenses. Millions of people are have oning contact lenses and it has been estimated that contact lenses are worn by 1.65 million people in the UK ( Roberts, Kaye et Al. 2005 ) . The jobs related with have oning contact lenses is associated with the type of lens used soft, stiff or gas permeable and the cleansing systems used by the commercial disinfecting solutions. Owing to the erosion lenses straight on the cornea, the jobs range from minor jobs to severe loss of vision cased by microbic keratitis. 2.4.2 Contact lens wearers The adhesion of the Acanthamoeba to the surface of contact lens is the first measure in the pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba Keratitis particularly in contact lens wearers. Contact lenses serve as an first-class transmittal and bringing of micro-organisms to the eye.There had been surveies proved that contact lens surfaces have high affinity to Acanthamoeba ( Ramachandran, Janakiraman et al. 1997 ) . There are several factors influence the ability of Acanthamoeba to adhere to reach lenses: I. The stuff, ionicity and H2O content of contact lens. The incidence of Acanthamoeba Keratitis is much higher in soft contact lenses, as compared with stiff types. Attachment of cysts and trophozoites was found to be higher for non-ionic instead than ionic disposable lenses ( Kelly and Xu 1995 ) and Simmons et al 1996 agreed with them in add-on to the suggestion to the content of soft contact lenses.. II. Acanthamoeba concentration and continuance of exposure. ( Sharma, Ramachandran et Al. 1995 ) In 1995, Sharma observed the immediate attachment of cyst and trophozoite to reach lenses which was 10 seconds after exposure. The higher H2O content particularly in disposable soft contact lenses explains the greater hazard of enduring from Acanthamoeba Keratitis in this type of lenses due to the satisfied clip of exposure for lenses to be loaded with Acanthamoeba. III. Lens surface sedimentations The presence of proteins sedimentations on the lens surface influence the fond regard of trophozoites and cysts. IV. Mechanical ways used in contact lens attention Phosphate buffered saline used in a station incubation wash decreased the figure of cysts and trophozoites adhesion, on the other manus, agitating showed no consequence on attachment ( Ramachandran, Janakiraman et al. 1997 ) . Most surveies agreed that a good wash extensively decreased the attachment of trophozoites and cysts to the contact lens surfaces ( Seal, Hay et Al. 1995 ; Sehgal, Saini et Al. 2002 ) . John, 1991, differed aggressively and suggested that rinsing had no consequence on Acanthamoeba phases. It has been suggested in recent surveies that multipurpose contact lens solutions that undergoes a manual hang-up regimens were more important in taking disciple slackly bound sedimentations ( Cho Pet Al, 2009 ) and microbes ( Kilvington and Lonnen 2009 ) from soft hydrogel lenses than rinsing or soaking entirely. V. Contact lenses germicide The contact lenses solutions categorized under the primary utilizations into cleansing, disinfecting, multipurpose, peroxide, enzyme cleaner/protein remover, rewetting ( beads ) and rinsing solutions. Multipurpose contact lens solutions are used daily and one of the most widely used groups because of the belongings to be a mixture of cleansing agent and bactericidal agents. What we know about the Acanthamoeba corneal infection is mostly based upon empirical surveies that investigate the susceptibleness of Acanthamoeba to soft contact lens disinfection system ( Ludwig, Meisler et Al. 1986 ) . In their major survey, the consequence of three heat and three cold soft contact lens disinfection systems were tested against Acanthamoeba castellanii and Acanthamoeba polyphaga harmonizing to the maker s instructions. Furthermore to their survey, they showed that Acanthamoeba castellanii trophozoites and cysts are more susceptible to heat disinfection than cold disinfection system The one measure 3 % H peroxide and multipurpose solutions were tested to be deficient in killing Fungi, bacteriums and Acanthamoeba cysts or trophozoites ( Tzanetou, Miltsakakis et Al. 2006 ) . on the other manus, the multipurposesolutions were tested to be capable of cut downing the attachment of Acanthamoeba to reach lenses ( Borazjani and Kilvington 2005 ) . Opti-free which express the multipurpose solution and used to clean, rinse and soak soft contact lens showed grounds of cut downing the attachment of trophozoites and cysts ( Kilvington and Anger 2001 ) . Complete easy hang-up multipurpose solution was tested on silicone hydrogel lenses showed the cabability in taking Fungi, bacteriums and Acanthamoeba ( Kilvington and Lonnen 2009 ) . The International Organization for Standards under ISO 14729 and Test Methods for Products and Regimen for Hygienic Management of Contact Lenses showed two trials to measure the antimicrobic efficaciousness of a contact lens disinfection regimen ( ISO14729.Opthalmic optics, 2001 ) . The base entirely trial is the first trial done by cut downing the viability of bacteriums ( by3-log unit ) and fungi ( by 1-log unit ) within the maker contact clip recommended. The 2nd trial undergoes if the first failed to run into these criterions and is called the regimen trial. Removing and killing of micro-organisms inoculated on the contact lenses takes topographic point in the regimen trial ( ISO14729.Opthalmic optics, 2001 ) . The efficaciousness of new disinfectants against Acanthamoeba species where tested based on the decrease of Alamar Blue ( McBride, Ingram et Al. 2005 ) . Chlorhexidine is a widely used drug to handle Acanthamoeba keratitis and known to be a membrane-active agent and mark acidic phospholipids, with the presence of high concentration has the mechanism to suppress the ATP synthesis ( Maillard 2002 ) . McBride et Al ( 2005 ) compared the comparative susceptiblenesss of Acanthamoeba castellanii and Acanthamoeba polyphaga to chlorhexidine, as assessed by the alamar bluish check and manual numeration methods are shown in table 2. We can sum up the above consequences that Acanthamoeba castellanii is more susceptible to Octadecyl-PC and Hexadecyl-PC than Acanthamoeba polyphaga whereas no consequence of eldofosine had been shown in both strains. Both Hexadecyl-PC and Octadecyl-PC were every bit effectual against Acanthamoeba castellanii, but Octadecyl-PC showed less effectual than Hexadecyl-PC against Acanthamoeba polyphaga.There were surveies of scientists who subscribed to the position that examined the effects of a figure of phospholipid parallels alkylphosphocholines on Acanthamoeba species by a manual numeration ( refr22 ) . A recent survey by Kilvington and Lonnen ( 2009 ) compared assorted makers recommended regimens for their ability to take and antimicrobic efficaciousness against bacteriums, Fungis and Acanthamoeba from two types of silicone hydrogel lenses. Harmonizing to their major survey with proving four contact lens germicides to take and demobilize bacteriums, Fungis and Acanthamoeba from the contact lenses resulted in differences in efficaciousness between the contact lens disinfection when tested harmonizing the industry s recommended protocols. In decision, the hang-up and rinse regimen potentially the rubbing measure showed a good factor in taking beings from lens surface. Table 1 summarized the efficaciousness of the multipurpose solution in taking and demobilizing Acanthamoeba castellanii trophozoite and cysts from contact lenses. With respect to the above summarizing tabular array, the undermentioned decisions may be drawn. The multipurpose solution Rinse A ; hang-up was the best method of demobilizing and taking the Acanthamoeba castellanii trophozoite and cysts that shows satisfactory marks harmonizing to the ( ISO14729.Opthalmic optics, 2001 ) . It showed unsatisfactory when utilizing No hang-up, rinse and No hang-up, no rinse in both A.castellanii trophozoite and cysts compared to the Rinse A ; rub method but non with the Renu multipurpose solution against the trophozoite. 5 The purpose of the undertaking The undertaking aims to reply two inquiries. First, what is the anti- Acanthamoeba efficaciousness of commercial contact lens solutions when used as maker instructions? Second, is it possible to take Acanthamoeba from contact lenses? And it aims to prove and utilize additives such as glyphosate and step it s vacancy to barricade the shikimate tract. 7 Study program In this survey, the development of contact lenses assays with the used of alamar blue as a sensor will be designed. Determining the efficaciousness of contact lenses solutions to take Acanthamoeba will be tested. Then some of the an linear will be used such as glyphosate to halt the shikimate tracts and 3AT to barricade the histidine biogenesis tracts. I hope the experiments run in a proper mode and acquire consequences and decisions that answer the purpose of the undertaking and develop new disinfectant for Acanthamoeba Keratitis. 8 decisions The figure of contact lenses wearers are increasing an as a sequence Acanthamoeba Keratitis have been more frequently, which needs a fast public wellness development. To understate the hazard of Acanthamoeba Keratitis, needs patient s conformity and basic hygienic criterions ( Silvany, Dougherty et Al. 1990 ) . Acanthamoeba has the greater affinity to adhere to either corneal or lens wearers. The of import factors that may affect in the lens and Acanthamoeba keratitis are lens hygiene, lens attention solutions, have oning modes and the conformity of lens users. Mentions Alizadeh, H. , S. Apte, et Al. ( 2001 ) . Tear IgA and serum IgG antibodies against Acanthamoeba in patients with Acanthamoeba keratitis. Cornea 20 ( 6 ) : 622-7. Bacon, A. S. , D. G. Frazer, et Al. ( 1993 ) . 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Use of subgenic 18S ribosomal DNA PCR and sequencing for genus and genotype designation of acanthamoebae from worlds with keratitis and from sewerage sludge. J Clin Microbiol 39 ( 5 ) : 1903-11. Seal, D. V. ( 2003 ) . Acanthamoeba keratitis update-incidence, molecular epidemiology and new drugs for intervention. Eye 17 ( 8 ) : 893-905. Seal, D. V. , J. Hay, et Al. ( 1995 ) . Chlorhexidine or polyhexamethylene biguanide for acanthamoeba keratitis. Lancet 345 ( 8942 ) : 136. Sehgal, R. , J. Saini, et Al. ( 2002 ) . Acanthamoeba attachment to soft contact lens and human corneal stroma. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 45 ( 1 ) : 63-7. Sharma, S. , L. Ramachandran, et Al. ( 1995 ) . Adherence of cysts and trophozoites of Acanthamoeba to unworn stiff gas permeable and soft contact lenses. Clao J 21 ( 4 ) : 247-51. Silvany, R. E. , J. M. Dougherty, et Al. ( 1990 ) . The consequence of presently available contact lens disinfection systems on Acanthamoeba castellanii and Acanthamoeba polyphaga. Ophthalmology 97 ( 3 ) : 286-90. Torno, M. S. , Jr. , R. Babapour, et Al. ( 2000 ) . Cutaneous acanthamoebiasis in AIDS. J Am Acad Dermatol 42 ( 2 Pt 2 ) : 351-4. Tzanetou, K. , D. Miltsakakis, et Al. ( 2006 ) . Acanthamoeba keratitis and contact lens disinfecting solutions. Ophthalmologica 220 ( 4 ) : 238-41. Wright, P. , D. Warhurst, et Al. ( 1985 ) . Acanthamoeba keratitis successfully treated medically. Br J Ophthalmol 69 ( 10 ) : 778-82. Willaert, E. , A. R. Stevens, and R. L. Tyndall. 1978. Acanthamoeba royreba sp. n. from a human tumour cell civilization. J. Protozool. 25:1-14.

Robotics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Robotics - Research Paper Example This paper reviews the unethical implications related to the use of these lethal weaponry. It provides a platform of reasoning for the policy makers, the political class, military personnel, scientists and the general public on the impending consequences of replacing humans in war with robots. It evaluates both the adverse effects of rapid change from humans to remote controlled robots and lately, to automated robots capable of sensing, hearing, communicating, acting and the extend of their necessities. In the evaluation and analysis, the review attempts to center around the ethical implications surrounding usage of automated robots in the modern warfare. Introduction and background The use of automated robots has a long history which began in the late 1980s when researchers got involved in the investigations on the use of multiple mobile robot systems. Previously, most researchers have carried out research which mainly concentrated on distributed problem solving mechanism. The main areas of concern by then were multi- robot motion plan, architectures for multi- robot cooperation and cellular robot system. Humanoid robots were first used in factories. They were capable to carry out production work without human assistance. The use of mobile and remote controlled robots in the military began back during the World War II and the cold war. The Germans through Goliath tracked mines and Soviet teletanks (a soviet built robot tanker) were used. The predator planes or drones were first used by the CIA officials in collection of intelligence in a fantasy environment. The aerial robots could collect intelligence for the military officials. Traditionally, robots were regarded as a topic for fiction by scientists in warfare. The modern concept of use of robots in the warfare began to develop with the use of mechanics and the introduction of electrical power. As time went on and many soldiers lost their lives in the battle field, there arose need to automate robots so that they could take the role of humans. This was after the rise of issues of human rights in the 1920s, although with concern and focus on the aggressor. This is the time that humanoid machines were developed and the myth of use of robots forgotten. It was now a reality (Parker 1-10). Robots are now gaining momentum in the modern warfare, although their use dates far back in the 19th century. Automated robots are proving to be efficient in the battle field as they reduce human loses and can easily penetrate in dangerous zones and perform effective and efficient. It is now common that robots in form of unmanned air vehicles are widely used by the US in destroying their enemies. This is evident in the Middle East wars, for instance Iraq, Afghanistan and collection of intelligence in South Korea among other regions of the world. Today, the drones used in war are controlled by pilots on the ground but with technological advancement, the pilots will be able to dial in when needed by the rob ots to take a specific action. The officer would be like managers in the future as robots undertake their roles. This trend of deploying autonomous robots in the battled field is quite worrying with regard to the ethical use of these systems in conflicts. This technological advancement generates more questions that are unanswered. The central question rests on the principle of discrimination of the combatant, non combatants and the organizational structure of the

Explain why sea level histories, coastal sector by coastal sector, Essay

Explain why sea level histories, coastal sector by coastal sector, will vary. How are the histories assembled What is the best substitute for a welldated loca - Essay Example In terms of conservation measures it is noted that the Earth's crust has varied terrain and topography that each require exclusively special techniques for sustainable consumption. The paper specifically inquires into one such terrain - coastal zones - in one specific country - Australia. It is not only present consumption levels that must be sustainable but also future ones that accrue through present and future development. The coastal zone, anywhere, is a combination of different types of terrain and topographies and techniques used to conserve it under separate forms of human exploitation are all housed under one countrywise policy - integrated coastal zone management (ICZM). In the context of the paper ICZM shall be reviewed in the context of sea-level histories in special relevance to the Commonwealth of Australia. "Everybody wants access to the coast. The.coast is where people want to live, do business, create development and where people want to recreate (Holliday, 1998) (Derived: Ed. Lazarow et al, 2006). This simple quote puts in a nutshell the types of human exploitation that coastal zones may be subjected to. Australia has a coastal zone that extends almost 36,000 km, excluding external territories, and is considered one of that country's greatest assets (National Cooperative Approach, Australia, 2006). The 'National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal Zone Management, Framework and Implementation Plan' is a report produced under the 'Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council', Commonwealth of Australia. The wide biodiversity thriving within this extensive zone exists in an interaction among the interesting mix of terrestrial, marine and estuarine ecosystems that are generated by the wide-ranging array of climatic, geographical and oceanographic variants (National Cooperative Approach, Australia, 2006). The variants within the habitats and life-forms require as wide a range of conservation measures and these measures are further complicated by the wide-ranging varieties of human activities this broad band of Australian territory attracts. Taking into consideration this wide r ange of factors that have to be assimilated in conjunction to enable positive conservation under projected levels of future consumption, partly derived from development, a result-oriented ICZM plan for the extensive Australian coastal zone is highly complex. This is borne out by the fact that the 'State of the Environment Report (2001)' that notes that, despite efforts at efficient CZM (coastal zone management), zonal quality, as per diverse predetermined criteria, continued to deteriorate and the rate of consumption of coastal resources continued to increase at a rate that would be unable to provide sufficient time for already jeopardized resources to recover (National Cooperative Approach, Australia, 2006). This last noted fact emphasizes the importance of this paper that strives to ascertain how sea-level histories can assist in ICZM. This is how the next part of the paper is

The problem of minority prisoners Essay Example for Free

The problem of minority prisoners Essay The problem of minority prisoners has been high on agenda for several decades already. In this paper I will focus my attention on possible measures and remedies aimed at establishing bridges of understanding between minority prisoners and corrections. I have critically examined a significant number of authoritative sources regarding the issue and I’m going to evaluate the problems that exist in current situation with minority representatives in prison and advocate for the necessary policy change. I shall note with regret that escalating tension between minority prisoners and the personnel is jeopardizing the rehabilitation of the convicts. This problem is often but inadequately addressed by prison authorities. Let me bring some examples. In Pakistan, according to Shehar Bano Khan’s article entitled â€Å"’Ordeal’ of Minority Prisoners†, Christian prisoners suffered from the â€Å"bitter ordeal of discrimination†, and the â€Å"prison authorities unbridled highhandedness and discriminatory behaviour has become a major personal safety concern†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (www.dawn.com/2004/08/29/nat16.htm) I want to start enlisting methods of building bridges of understanding between minority prisoners and corrections by quoting the message of the Scottish Prison Service: â€Å"The Prison Service is absolutely committed to ensuring race equality and delivery of good race relations in all aspects of our work. We will ensure that race issues are addressed in all parts of our business – and promote race equality as a core standard and essential ingredient for running a successful prison.† (www.sps.gov.uk/home/reqs.pdf) All Party Parliamentary Group for Further Education and Lifelong Learning in the report on prison education came to the following conclusion: â€Å"Black and ethnic minority prisoners may have different learning needs and some requirement for different sites and modes of learning. For example there is a need for more culturally sensitive programmes for such prisoners prisoners whose first language is not English will need different learning programmes.† (http://www.natfhe.org.uk/says/pubsfued.html) This should be a very serious concern in the prisons worldwide; this principle should be applied to any interaction between the staff and minority prisoners, let alone the educational process. The staff of the prison should always keep in mind that prisoners from different racial and ethnic background may require using different interaction models. All the minority prisoners must have access to quality interpretation services; this is the first step to build the bridges of understanding in a literal sense. This may sound unrealistic for the moment but prison personnel should work towards the completion of this important goal. Keeping in mind, that minority prisoners may be vulnerable and sensitive about some issues, it would be of great use organizing a special training session for prison staff concerning cultural and religious practices of minority prisoners serving their sentence in a specific institution. The report entitled Implementing Race Equality in Prisons advices â€Å"to ensure effective training incorporating race equality issues†¦is developed and delivered to employees and contracted staff on the basis of learning need.† (www.cre.gov.uk/pdfs/PrisonsFI_action.pdf) Basically, the question of religion is a separate topic. The prison personnel should be very attentive to this issue since religious disrespect may cause tension and confrontation. For centuries prisoners have been deprived of their right to religious practices because it was perceived as an effective way to demoralize them. Let’s remember the controversy over the religious discrimination of the prisoners in Guantanamo. Shehar Bano Khan’s article also informs that in Pakistan, â€Å"discriminatory treatment of Christians and other minorities has become a regular feature†¦Ã¢â‚¬  with â€Å"janitorial work†¦assigned to the Christians only† and with â€Å"no preacher for them.† (www.dawn.com/2004/08/29/nat16.htm) The prison personnel should ensure that every minority prisoners has an opportunity and facilities to practice his/her religion; spiritual literature should be supplied if necessary. The guard shouldn’t subject the convicts to discrimination due to their religious beliefs. The Race Equality Scheme being implemented by Scottish Prison Service states the same: â€Å"Members of all religious groups have the same right to practice their faith. Arrangements should be made to give each group the same opportunities to do so.† (www.sps.gov.uk/home/reqs.pdf) There’s much debate over the question of the religious practices in prisons. It’s widely recognized that â€Å"although prisoners retain the right to free exercise of religion, incarceration places some practical limits on this right,† as Mara Schneider informs in the article entitled â€Å"Splitting Hairs: Why Courts Uphold Prison Grooming Policies and Why They Should Not.† (Michigan Journal of Race Law 2004)   Therefore, the prison personnel should ensure religious freedom unless it’s incompatible with safety concerns. The article by Jennifer Vogel entitled â€Å" White Guard, Black Guard: Racism in Washington Continues† informs that â€Å"more than one third of the more than 14,000 state prison prisoners are of minority descent.† In the article the issue of violence against minority workers and prisoners is scrutinize. The author proposes a highly efficient measure to establish fair treatment of minority prisoners. She especially stresses the fact that â€Å"while 23 percent of prisoners are black, only 6 percent of DOC employees are black.† (www.prisonlegalnews.org/ban.htm) Employing guards from minority background will provide a positive model of non-discrimination. Still, careful workplace control should be initiated. The offences of minority guards are reported and such practices lead to violence towards minority prisoners. This caused, according to Vogel’s article, â€Å"a frightening atmosphere where white guards refer to blacks as â€Å"coons† and worse; where minority prisoners are targeted for beatings; where black guards receive threats†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (www.prisonlegalnews.org/ban.htm) We live in multiethnic societies. Until there is no equality and fair representation of minorities in staff we can’t speak of establishing efficient communication between the prisoners and the guards. The report entitled Implementing Race Equality advices â€Å"to increase the proportion of staff from minority ethnic groups to achieve a representative workforce†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (www.cre.gov.uk/pdfs/PrisonsFI_action.pdf) The statistical report entitled Ethnic Minorities: Crime and Criminal Justice states the following: â€Å"Ethnic minorities are under-represented in the police, prison service, lay magistracy and at senior levels in all criminal justice agencies.† (http://www.rouncefield.homestead.com/files/a_soc_dev_35.htm) The guards should never deprive prisoners of the use of any prison facilities. The Scottish Prison Service recommends the following: â€Å"The range of facilities provided and opportunities offered to staff and prisoners, including jobs, should be responsive to the needs of ethnic and racial groups. All staff and prisoners should have equal access to those facilities and opportunities.† (www.sps.gov.uk/home/reqs.pdf) The report entitled Implementing Race Equality in Prisons also supports this view by stating that the following should be proposed to all the prisoners on the equal basis: â€Å"Facility licences enable eligible prisoners the chance to participate in; training, employment, educational and community service or for official purposes such as attending civil court proceedings.† (www.cre.gov.uk/pdfs/PrisonsFI_action.pdf) We must admit that the most efficient way of protecting minority prisoners’ right is launching a formal complaint. Numerous court cases were initiated on this issue. Therefore I would suggest informing both the prisoners and the guards about non-discrimination legal acts and policies as well as practical methods of protecting their rights. All the necessary support should be provided to the prisoners who want to defend their right. Kimmett Edgar and Carol Martin interviewed the ethic minority representatives in the local prisons. Here’re their findings: â€Å"32% said they had not experienced anything that warranted a complaint†¦36% of those who had experienced discrimination said that they had complained.† The reasons for not complaining included that the prisoners â€Å"were frightened of reprisals from staff if they did complain,† or â€Å"believed it would be futile to complain,† or â€Å"they did not know how to complain.† (www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/rdsolr1104.pdf) Ensuring transparency and efficiency of the complaint system should be the primary concern of the prison personnel. An article reviewing The Black and Asian Prisoner s Guidebook and the Law attracts our attention to the fact that the basic rights of every person should be always respected: â€Å"The Civil and Human Rights of ethnic minority prisoners systematically apply by colour, race, nationality, ethnic or national origin, religion and religious beliefs.† (http://www.blink.org.uk/pdescription.asp?key=1095grp=16) Legal Assistance Available to Minority Prisoners in Delaware, the most comprehensive study of possible models of legal assistance, points out a series of problems preventing the prisoners from minority background from receiving qualified legal protection. This list includes poor interpretation services, shortage of paralegal help, shortage of the advocates speaking the languages of ethnic minorities as well as shortage of public defenders and judges. The prison personnel should help the prisoners to overcome all this barriers and to obtained necessary legal help. The report entitled Implementing Race Equality in Prisons stresses the importance of proper monitoring and surveying. This should include 1. Prisoner Ethnic Monitoring data outcomes, 2. Race Relations Management Audit score, 3. Substantiated/unsubstantiated racial incidents (prisoners/visitors), 4. Prisoner survey outcomes,5. Visitor survey outcomes. The report also proposes â€Å"to develop effective systems at national and establishment level to monitor progress on race equality ensuring compliance with†¦[the legislation]†¦and taking remedial action to address difficulties.† (www.cre.gov.uk/pdfs/PrisonsFI_action.pdf) Laura May in her article entitled Action Needed over Race Relations at Jail, Report Finds states the following:   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Black and ethnic minority inmates in a prison believe they have been marginalised but inspectors could find no evidence of direct discrimination†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=1979788) Proper monitoring should be in place to prevent such common situations. Scottish Prison Service in the annual 2004 report indicated several important initiatives aimed at building bridges between minority prisoners and guards and establishing racial equality. From my point of view, the most interesting of them were â€Å"development of closer links with a number of external organisations in the promotion and development of race equality within our Service,† â€Å"the introduction of a foreign language book rental scheme for prisoners,† â€Å"the continued development of our Race Relations Complaints system and monitoring from our national Race Relations Liaison Monitoring Group,† as well as â€Å"the development of Dietary Guidance in relation to ethnic minority catering throughout the estate.† (http://www.sps.gov.uk/keydocs/race_equality_reports/default.asp) To sum up my paper, I would like to stress once more the importance of building bridges of understanding between the minority prisoners and corrections. The rights of the prisoners and non-discrimination should be the key principles in providing proper treatment of minority representatives. There is a variety of measures aimed at ensuring equality in prisons ranging from staff training to monitoring. But I would like to stress that all these measures would work only if applied consistently and simultaneously. References    NATFHE Prison Education Submission to the All Party Parliamentary Group for Further Education and Lifelong Learning,   June 2004 Available: http://www.natfhe.org.uk/says/pubsfued.html Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 Shehar Bano Khan, â€Å"Ordeal of Minority Prisoners†, DAWN, 29 August, 2004 Available: www.dawn.com/2004/08/29/nat16.htm Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 Jennifer Vogel, White Guard, Black Guard: Racism in Washington Continues, May, 1999 Available: www.prisonlegalnews.org/ban.htm Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 Mara R. Schneider, Splitting Hairs: Why Courts Uphold Prison Grooming Policies and Why They Should Not, Michigan Journal of Race Law, Volume 9, Issue 2, Spring 2004 Scottish Prison Service, Race Equality Scheme, 2000 Available: www.sps.gov.uk/home/reqs.pdf Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 Kimmett Edgar, Carol Martin, Perceptions of race and conflict: perspectives of minority ethnic prisoners and of prison officers, University of Oxford Centre for Criminological Research, Home Office Online Report 11/04, 2004 Available: www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/rdsolr1104.pdf Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 Legal Assistance Available to Minority Prisoners in Delaware, 1989 Available: http://www.law.umaryland.edu/edocs/usccr/pdf%20files/Preservation%20Resources%20PDF/cr12as7z.pdf Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 Commission for Race Equality, HM Prison Service, Implementing Race Equality in Prisons, December 2003 Available: www.cre.gov.uk/pdfs/PrisonsFI_action.pdf Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 Scottish Prison Service, Race Equality Annual Report, 2004 Available: http://www.sps.gov.uk/keydocs/race_equality_reports/default.asp Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 The Ethnic Minority Press, The Black and Asian Prisoner s Guidebook and the Law, A review, 19 August 2002 Available: http://www.blink.org.uk/pdescription.asp?key=1095grp=16 Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 Ethnic Minorities: Crime and Criminal Justice Available: http://www.rouncefield.homestead.com/files/a_soc_dev_35.htm Last Accessed: 3 November 2004 Laura May, Scottman.com, Action Needed over Race Relations at Jail, Report Finds, 25 September 2003 Available: http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=1979788 Last Accessed: 3 November 2004

Eli Whitney Essay -- essays research papers

By 1790 slavery was on the decline in America. Apart from tobacco, rice, and a special strain of cotton that could be grown only in very few places, the South really had no money crop to export. Tobacco was a land waster, depleting the soil within very few years. Land was so cheap that tobacco planters never bothered to reclaim the soil by crop rotation -- they simply found new land farther west. The other crops -- rice, indigo, corn, and some wheat -- made for no great wealth. Slaves cost something, not only to buy but to maintain, and some Southern planters thought that conditions had reached a point where a slave's labor no longer paid for his care. Eli Whitney came to the south in 1793, conveniently enough, during the time when Southern planters were in their most desperate days. In a little over a week, he started the biggest avalanche of production that any economy had ever experienced. The South would never be the same again. Eli Whitney was born on December 8, 1765 in Westboro, Massachusetts. The tall, heavy-shouldered boy worked as a blacksmith. He had an almost natural understanding of mechanisms. On a machine made at home, he made nails, and at one time he was the only maker of ladies' hatpins in the country. In his early twenties, Whitney became determined to attend Yale College. Since Yale was mostly a school for law or theology, his parents objected. How could Yale College help enhance his mechanical talents? Finally, at the age of twenty-three, Whitney became a student at Yale. By this time, he seemed almost middle-aged to his classmates. After he graduated with his degree in 1792, he found that no jobs were available to a man with his talents. He eventually settled for teaching, and accepted a job as a tutor in South Carolina, his salary was promised to be one hundred guineas a year. He sailed on a small coasting packet with only a few passengers, among whom was the widow of the Revolutionary general, Nathanael Greene. The Greenes had settled in Savannah after the war. When Whitney arrived in South Carolina, he found that the promised salary was going to be halved. He not only refused to take the position, but decided to give up teaching all together. Coming to his aid, Mrs. Greene invited him to her plantation where he could read law, and also help out the plantation manager, Phineas Miller. Miller, a few years older than Whitney, wa... ...housand dollars in bonds from his friends in New Haven, and he personally borrowed ten thousand dollars from the New Haven bank. The sum involved in this big order, $134,000, was the biggest single transaction in the country at that time. By then end of the first year, Whitney was just getting into production, a big accomplishment for those times, but instead of the four thousand muskets he had promised, there were only five hundred produced. When news of this got to Whitney's financial backers, they became doubtful. All in all, it took Whitney almost eight years to fill the entire order. There were still many gaps in his system. There were endless bugs to be worked out, however, most of the ten thousand muskets were produced in the last two years. In 1811, Whitney took another order, this time for fifteen thousand. These were all produced in only two years. Whitney continued on with his development of the factory until his death on January 8, 1825. Unfortunately, Whitney has been all but forgotten. He is mostly remembered as "the cotton man," and nothing else. However, without the ingenuity and dedication of this individual, who knows where the world might be today. Eli Whitney Essay -- essays research papers By 1790 slavery was on the decline in America. Apart from tobacco, rice, and a special strain of cotton that could be grown only in very few places, the South really had no money crop to export. Tobacco was a land waster, depleting the soil within very few years. Land was so cheap that tobacco planters never bothered to reclaim the soil by crop rotation -- they simply found new land farther west. The other crops -- rice, indigo, corn, and some wheat -- made for no great wealth. Slaves cost something, not only to buy but to maintain, and some Southern planters thought that conditions had reached a point where a slave's labor no longer paid for his care. Eli Whitney came to the south in 1793, conveniently enough, during the time when Southern planters were in their most desperate days. In a little over a week, he started the biggest avalanche of production that any economy had ever experienced. The South would never be the same again. Eli Whitney was born on December 8, 1765 in Westboro, Massachusetts. The tall, heavy-shouldered boy worked as a blacksmith. He had an almost natural understanding of mechanisms. On a machine made at home, he made nails, and at one time he was the only maker of ladies' hatpins in the country. In his early twenties, Whitney became determined to attend Yale College. Since Yale was mostly a school for law or theology, his parents objected. How could Yale College help enhance his mechanical talents? Finally, at the age of twenty-three, Whitney became a student at Yale. By this time, he seemed almost middle-aged to his classmates. After he graduated with his degree in 1792, he found that no jobs were available to a man with his talents. He eventually settled for teaching, and accepted a job as a tutor in South Carolina, his salary was promised to be one hundred guineas a year. He sailed on a small coasting packet with only a few passengers, among whom was the widow of the Revolutionary general, Nathanael Greene. The Greenes had settled in Savannah after the war. When Whitney arrived in South Carolina, he found that the promised salary was going to be halved. He not only refused to take the position, but decided to give up teaching all together. Coming to his aid, Mrs. Greene invited him to her plantation where he could read law, and also help out the plantation manager, Phineas Miller. Miller, a few years older than Whitney, wa... ...housand dollars in bonds from his friends in New Haven, and he personally borrowed ten thousand dollars from the New Haven bank. The sum involved in this big order, $134,000, was the biggest single transaction in the country at that time. By then end of the first year, Whitney was just getting into production, a big accomplishment for those times, but instead of the four thousand muskets he had promised, there were only five hundred produced. When news of this got to Whitney's financial backers, they became doubtful. All in all, it took Whitney almost eight years to fill the entire order. There were still many gaps in his system. There were endless bugs to be worked out, however, most of the ten thousand muskets were produced in the last two years. In 1811, Whitney took another order, this time for fifteen thousand. These were all produced in only two years. Whitney continued on with his development of the factory until his death on January 8, 1825. Unfortunately, Whitney has been all but forgotten. He is mostly remembered as "the cotton man," and nothing else. However, without the ingenuity and dedication of this individual, who knows where the world might be today.

Why is college education necessary?

Learning vs.. Securing a Career Should the students go to colleges and universities to learn and grow or to secure a sound future career? The answer to this question is debatable. Some people believe that universities should educate students on such lines which make them get a highly paid Job. To some extent this notion is acceptable as far as the economic conditions of the world are concerned.On the contrary, some say that college education should up bring the students In such a way that they hold a position of respect and professional recognition, moreover that they serve as an essential alluding block in the progress of society. A good Job or money Is not everything; knowledge and education are more than that. Just pursuing a degree may not guarantee you a lucrative Job but studying at a college may develop such skills In students that are necessary to lead a protocol life.It Is the knowledge of education, knowledge of empowerment, knowledge of responsibility and the knowledge of curiosity which makes a student an Intellectual personality – but not the degree he pursues nor the institution he goes to. So, students should endeavor for the pursuit f excellence and knowledge. There are many purposes for obtaining a college education. Firstly, it develops the character and personality of students which make their lives sound academically, professionally, and financially as well.It helps students to make themselves a promising career. College serves as a medium for students to fulfill their dreams. It gives them a chance to study and research in their preferred subjects and to pursue their Jobs in that field of their specialization. It provides them with a chance to get exposure within them. Universities tend to train dents to step in the modern world by giving them theoretical as well as practical knowledge. College education also helps the students to communicate with deferent people, which is beneficial in the corporate world.In short, it provides the n ecessary skills needed in a professional life. These college educations have brought about a revolution in the history. The Muhammad Anglo-oriental College, later named as Aligarh's Muslim University educated the Muslims of that time on modern lines to make them compete with their contemporaries, and served as a great platform in the placement of an independent nation – Pakistan. What if a student does not continue his education after school or does not take admission in a college or university?Will he be able to live a life of dignity and prosperity? The probability Is very low. One may earn more money even by not continuing studies at college, but as I mentioned earlier money is not everything – college education makes one academically sound. Therefore, the mall purpose for obtaining college education Is to develop the qualities of Intellectual curiosity and social responsibility wealth oneself, to think beyond the horizon, as well as to up bring oneself to such an I ntellectual personality that one gets a note-worthy Job because of his discern and mental capability.Why is college education necessary? By Muhammad Intense-Khan education should up bring the students in such a way that they hold a position of building block in the progress of society. A good Job or money is not everything; guarantee you a lucrative Job but studying at a college may develop such skills in students that are necessary to lead a prolific life. It is the knowledge of education, curiosity which makes a student an intellectual personality – but not the degree he knowledge.College education also helps the students to communicate with different university? Will he be able to live a life of dignity and prosperity? The probability is academically sound. Therefore, the main purpose for obtaining college education is to develop the qualities of intellectual curiosity and social responsibility within intellectual personality that one gets a note-worthy Job because of his discern and

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr And Mahatma Gandhi - 1560 Words

Mahatma Ghandi once said, â€Å"I object to violence because when it appears to do good, the good is only temporary; the evil it does is permanent.† Although Gandhi is completely against violence, I believe that violence can be justified depending on the cause of it. If violence is used in the act of defense from an aggressor, then it is acceptable. However, in any other case, violence is unjustified. Looking back in history, several examples can be appreciated where violent paths were chosen. If those scenarios are analysed today, one can realize that peaceful options were available, but not chosen. Individuals like Martin Luther King Jr and Mahatma Ghandi both used peaceful methods to reach their own respective objectives. Mahatma Gandhi used non violent protests to break the British rule and Martin Luther King Jr followed suite with his own non violent methods including the famous Selma march for social justice. However, there are some circumstances where violence is the o nly answer. For example, during World War II, the Allied forces were compelled to fight back against the aggressive Nazi Forces in order to protect the larger population. Additionally, I believe that positivity can not be a result of reacting to conflict or danger with violence. As Gandhi said, the evil that derives from violence far outweighs the short term positives. As I look back at my cherished childhood books and movies, I realize that in most cases, violence was showcased to solve problems rather thanShow MoreRelatedDr. Martin Luther King Jr. Essay1134 Words   |  5 Pageshuman rights race relationships and power. In this paper, I will focus on the themes of racism, human rights, and power and how history makers such as Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and Mahatma Gandhi (just to name these few) helped to redress them to an extent and how theirs efforts shape contemporary events. 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